Green synthesis of silver silver chloride (Ag/AgCl) nanoparticles using macadamia nutshell xylan extract, characterization and evaluation of its antibacterial activity

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dc.contributor.authorYegon, Andrew
dc.contributor.authorOyetade, Joshua
dc.contributor.authorMtavangu, Stanslaus
dc.contributor.authorRwiza, Mwemezi
dc.contributor.authorMachunda, Revocatus
dc.date.accessioned2025-09-16T13:52:17Z
dc.date.issued2025-07-26
dc.descriptionSDG -3 : Good Health and Well-being SDG -9 : Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure SDG -12 : Responsible Consumption and Production
dc.description.abstractCurrently, there is unprecedented emergence of antimicrobial resistant (AMR) bacteria which demand urgent development of novel strategies to combat bacterial infections in humans. In this study, we report on a facile and eco-friendly green synthesis of silver-silver chloride nanoparticles (Ag/AgCl-NPs) using macadamia (Macadamia integrifolia) nut-shell (MNS) agro-waste. The effects of physicochemical parameters including pH, Ag ion precursor concentration, time, and temperature were investigated. The biosynthesized Ag/AgCl-NPs sample was characterized using ultraviolet visible spectroscopy (UV–Vis), Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD) spectroscopy, field emission scanning spectroscopy (FE-SEM), Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and energy dispersive X-ray (EDX). UV–Vis spectroscopy exhibited surface plasmon resonance (SPR) between 420 and 446 nm typical for silver nanoparticles (AgNPs). FT-IR spectroscopy provided an insight of the phytochemicals responsible for the reduction of Ag+ into Ago and capping/stabilizing the formed Ag/AgCl-NPs. XRD spectroscopy revealed the formation of crystalline Ag/AgCl-NPs with characteristic peaks at around 38.3°, 44.1°, 64.6°, and 77.5° for AgNPs, and 28.9°, 31.9°, 45.4°, 56.3°, and 66.1° for AgCl NPs. FE-SEM spectroscopy exhibited spherical and block like morphologies of agglomerated Ag/AgCl-NPs. TEM illustrated polydisperse spherical shapes of Ag/AgCl-NPs with average particle sizes of 31.11 nm. EDX confirmed the presence of Ag and Cl elements confirming the formation of Ag/AgCl-NPs. The antibacterial activity of the green synthesized Ag/AgCl-NPs was performed using disc diffusion method and the zone inhibition (ZOI) evaluation showed their effectiveness against Gram negative (E. coli) and Gram positive (S. aureus).
dc.identifier.urihttps://doi.org/10.1186/s11671-025-04192-z
dc.identifier.urihttps://dspace.nm-aist.ac.tz/handle/123456789/3252
dc.language.isoen
dc.publisherDiscover Nano
dc.subjectMacadamia nutshell waste
dc.subjectSilver/silver chloride nanoparticles
dc.subjectGreen synthesis
dc.subjectAntibacterial activity
dc.subjectAgro-waste
dc.subjectXylan
dc.titleGreen synthesis of silver silver chloride (Ag/AgCl) nanoparticles using macadamia nutshell xylan extract, characterization and evaluation of its antibacterial activity
dc.typeArticle

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