Research Articles

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Analysis of Legal Conundrums in Division of Co-owned Real Property Following Divorce in Tanzania
(Law Reform Commission of Tanzania, 2024-03) Jangu, Luckness
Ownership of real property among spouses is regulated by the Constitution, land, and marriage laws. The Constitution guarantees the right to own property, while the Land Act specifies conditions permitting spouses to co-own land. The Law of Marriage Act (LMA) unifies and harmonizes existing multiple regimes of marriage and recognizes all forms of marriage. However, the LMA is silent, and its provisions have notable challenges and or are irrelevant in the distribution of co-owned real property upon divorce in monogamous and polygamous marriages. Likewise, there is a legal conundrum attached to provisions of the LMA, the Land Act, and the Land Registration Act. This Article analyses these challenges and concludes that the LMA has not been aligned with property laws. In this regard, it is irrelevant in the distribution of co-owned real property between spouses at the time of divorce. The Article recommends the amendment of the LMA and its rules to accommodate the division of co-owned real property during divorce.
Protection of Third Parties’ Interest in Real Property During the Division of Matrimonial Property in Mainland Tanzania
(Law Reform Commission of Tanzania, 2024-03) Jangu, Luckness
The article specifically assesses the overlooked phenomenon of protection of third- party interest in real property during the division of matrimonial property after divorce in polygamous marriages under the Law of Marriage Act (LMA). The article is inspired by the Constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania and the Land Act which provides the right to property of every person and the protection of such property by the law and that any interest in land has value which should be considered during any disposition of property. Data for the article was obtained through doctrinal and comparative legal methodologies. It is noted that the laws regulating the division of matrimonial property at the time of divorce fall short in the protection of the third party’s interest in real property at the time of the division of real matrimonial property. It is concluded that the LMA should be amended to accord the right to third parties to defend their interest in real property during the division of such property after divorce by enacting relevant provisions to that effect.
An Examination of the Law of Marriage: Act regarding the Distribution of Matrimonial Real Property in the Context of Customary and Islamic Polygamous Marriages in Mainland Tanzania
(International Journal of Law Management & Humanities, 2024) Jangu, Luckness
This paper examines the Law of Marriage Act as it pertains to the division of matrimonial real property within the context of customary and Islamic marriages in Mainland Tanzania. It highlights the legal frameworks governing property rights, identifying disparities and challenges faced by spouses in these marriage types. The study reveals that while the Act aims to provide equitable property distribution, it often falls short in addressing the unique cultural and religious dynamics of customary and Islamic practices. Key issues include inadequate legal recognition of non-formalized marriages and conflicting interpretations of property rights. By analyzing case law and existing literature, this paper advocates for reforms to enhance legal clarity and ensure fair treatment for all spouses, promoting gender equity and protecting the rights of individuals within diverse marital contexts. Ultimately, it underscores the need for an inclusive legal approach to matrimonial property rights in Tanzania.
The Legal Complexities of the Relief in Division of Matrimonial Real Property upon Divorce in Mainland Tanzania: Lessons from Kenya
(African Journal of Law and Practice, 2024-12) Jangu, Luckness
The Law of Marriage Act, 2019 provides two main reliefs on the division of matrimonial property to spouses during divorce: The division of the property or the sale of property and distribution of proceeds. Division or sale of the property and the distribution of proceeds of the sale affects divorcing and non-divorcing spouses in polygamous marriages. Non- divorcing spouses can prevent the execution of a valid decree since their contribution or interest in the property was not considered during divorce proceedings. Courts are restricted to these reliefs since the Law of Marriage Act lacks other reliefs which take into consideration the convolutions of polygamous marriage and the intricacies of real property in the division. This article examines the legal complexities of reliefs in the division of matrimonial real property in polygamous marriages. The article uses doctrinal and comparative methodologies, exploring Kenya's reliefs during the division of matrimonial property to inform potential reforms in Mainland Tanzania’s legal framework. The article asserts that the reliefs in section 114 of the Law of Marriage Act are insufficient to address the challenges of property division in polygamous divorce. The Article advocates for comprehensive legal reforms on reliefs to address the unique dynamics of polygamous marriages.
Stumbling blocks for solar social enterprises: Unveiling the barriers facing enterprises serving the base of the pyramid solar market in Tanzania
(Elsevier, 2025-01-01) Malima, Gabriel; Makundi, Hezron; Sheikheldin, Gussai
Despite the initially favourable environment for solar PV investments, the relevant literature increasingly emphasizes the emerging barriers that threaten the growth and sustainability of solar PV enterprises. This has led scholars to examine challenges in East Africa's solar energy subsector, with a focus on the evolving institutional environment. However, we discovered that, within the ongoing discourse surrounding this sector, relatively limited scholarly attention has been given to solar energy service social enterprises (SEs). In response to this gap, we have conducted a specific study to explore the barriers facing the performance of solar energy service SEs in Tanzania. Drawing on institutional theory, we unveil the formative, normative and cognitive factors that influence the performance of SEs. Data were gathered through semi-structured interviews with ten solar SEs in Tanzania, supplemented by a review of the literature. The study revealed that regulatory barriers such as an unfavourable policy environment, grid arrival regulations, uncertainties over tariff policies, the prevalence of counterfeit products and limited access to finance and capital, as well as normative constraints such as limited partnerships and networking, are key barriers to operating at the base of the pyramid (BoP). The study underscores the need for collaborative efforts between the government, investors and SEs to create an enabling environment to continue serving the BoP market.
Economic Viability of Micro-Irrigation Technologies in Smallholder Horticultural Farming: A Comparative Study with Traditional Furrow Irrigation in Northern Tanzania
(Global Academic Journal of Economics and Business, 2025-03-21) Nyangarika, Anthony; Absanto, Gerald; Mkunda, Josephine
This study investigated the economic viability of Micro Irrigation Technologies (MITs) compared with traditional furrow irrigation in smallholder horticultural farming in northern Tanzania. Using a quasi-experimental cross- sectional design, data were collected from 540 farmers, divided into adopters and nonadopters of MITs. Economic metrics, including net present value (NPV), the benefit‒cost ratio (BCR), and the internal rate of return (IRR), were analysed over a five-year investment horizon through statistical methods in SPSS and Microsoft Excel. The results indicate that MITs, particularly drip and sprinkler systems, increase the productivity and profitability of high-value crops such as onions and tomatoes, yielding significantly higher NPVs than furrow irrigation does. Despite their high initial costs, these technologies demonstrated long-term economic benefits, including improved water efficiency and labour cost savings. Regression analysis further revealed that both crop type and irrigation technology significantly influence economic outcomes. Onions and tomatoes under MIT presented the highest financial returns, whereas peppers under furrow irrigation achieved better cost efficiency. This study underscores the transformative potential of MITs in enhancing horticultural productivity and sustainability in water-scarce regions. The study recommends targeted interventions, including subsidies, financial incentives, training programs, and policy support, to scale up the adoption of MITs.
Integrating Traditional Knowledge and Modern Technologies for Renewable Energy Adoption in Sub-Saharan Africa: Advancing Climate Resilience and Carbon Reduction Strategies
(Global Academic Journal of Economics and Business, 2024-11-25) Nyangarika, Anthony
This paper explores the potential of reducing carbon footprints and greenhouse gas emissions in climate-sensitive regions of Sub-Saharan Africa by integrating traditional knowledge with modern renewable energy technologies. Drawing on a mixed-methods approach that combines quantitative energy data and qualitative insights from expert interviews and policy reviews, the study analyzes the implementation of renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, and hydro. Data from global organizations, including the International Energy Agency (IEA) and the World Bank, supports the investigation. The findings highlight renewable energy's transformative potential for emissions reduction, energy security, and economic growth, with solar energy demonstrating exceptional promise for rural electrification. Despite its benefits, adoption is hindered by financial constraints, inadequate infrastructure, and regulatory challenges. The study underscores the need for climate resilience strategies such as energy storage integration and grid upgrades to support reliable access to renewable energy. By linking renewable energy with sustainability and resilience theories, the research emphasizes the role of adaptive infrastructure in fostering economic development and environmental health. Key recommendations include improving financing mechanisms, enacting supportive policy frameworks, strengthening regional partnerships, and prioritizing energy storage and grid modernization. This study provides actionable insights for policymakers, energy stakeholders, and development organizations, emphasizing that overcoming barriers to renewable energy adoption is critical for achieving sustainable energy access, reducing emissions, and aligning with global climate goals.
Economic Development Through Strategic FDI and Technology Adoption: An Econometric Analysis for Sustainable Revenue Growth in Tanzania
(Global Academic Journal of Economics and Business, 2024-11-22) Nyangarika, Anthony
This study proposes a robust strategy for bolstering the country’s economic development. Leveraging an econometric approach model, the research incorporates additional factors and extrapolates predictions based on historical data. By combining qualitative and secondary data, the study ensures a comprehensive analysis of the model through the error term and the ability to use mathematical treatments to determine future predictions based on historical data. The findings show that a lack of belonging, poor customer care, and the cost factor of FDI significantly affect revenue collection. Adopting new technology requires thorough preparation to avoid generating less revenue than expected. The study recommends that the government establish appropriate infrastructures for long-term strategy support for new technology adoption. Failure to do so may result in a waste of resources. Government policy and strategy significantly impact TRA performance. The URT government should adopt policies from other developed countries or modify them to suit local needs. The findings suggest serious corrective measures to prevent tax evasion through bribery or tampering with revenue collection infrastructures.
Sustainable Energy Solutions in Sub-Saharan Africa: Integrating Indigenous Knowledge and Climate Resilience for Lower Carbon Emissions
(Global Academic Journal of Economics and Business, 2024-10) Nyangarika, Anthony
Promoting sustainable energy solutions in sub-Saharan countries is crucial for addressing energy poverty, reducing carbon emissions, and fostering long-term environmental and economic sustainability. This study explored using indigenous knowledge and emerging technologies to reduce carbon footprints and GHG emissions in Africa's climate hotspots in sub-Saharan countries. The study revealed that operating institutions utilize various applications to ensure that energy management resources can mitigate the effects of carbon emissions. The study revealed that the most efficient use of natural resources for energy production requires collaboration among governments, private sectors, NGOs, and local communities. By adopting a holistic and inclusive approach, one can work toward a more sustainable and low-carbon energy future. This paper focuses on carbon footprint analysis and proposes solutions to address environmental issues in implementing sustainable energy solutions in sub-Saharan countries. A multifaceted approach involving effective strategies is needed to lower the carbon footprint. The contribution of this study is to improve energy consumption in communities in Africa by integrating climate resilience considerations into sustainable energy projects to ensure long-term viability. This will involve planning for changing climate conditions, such as extreme weather events, and designing infrastructure that can withstand and adapt to these challenges. It has been concluded that carbon footprint analysis is useful for determining the impacts of carbon particles in the world’s atmosphere. The role of energy management operations seeks to improve the assessment and analysis of carbon footprints by allowing atmospheric measurements of carbon.
Macroeconomic Implications of Oil Price Fluctuations: A Simultaneous Equation Analysis of Russia's Economic Performance and Policy Responses
(Global Academic Journal of Economics and Business, 2024-06) Nyangarika, Anthony
This study uses a simultaneous equation model (SEM) to examine the relationship between oil price fluctuations and Russia's macroeconomic performance. It uses a comprehensive set of variables, including GDP growth, investment, export and consumption rates, exchange rates, and oil prices, to estimate the interactions between these variables. The study reveals significant findings on the macroeconomic impact of oil price fluctuations on Russia's economies, including short-term and long-term effects on GDP growth, inflation, and unemployment rates. It also examines the role of monetary policy in mitigating the adverse effects of oil price shocks on the economy. The study highlights Russia's vulnerability to oil price fluctuations, especially due to its heavy reliance on oil exports. It also examines the effectiveness of policy responses, such as fiscal measures and exchange rate interventions, in mitigating the impact of oil price shocks on Russia's macroeconomic stability. The findings provide valuable insights for policymakers and stakeholders, aiming to enhance economic resilience and stability in the face of oil market fluctuations.
Energy stability and decarbonization in developing countries: Random Forest approach for forecasting of crude oil trade flows and macro indicators
(Frontiers in Environmental Science, 2022-11) Nyangarika, Anthony; Alexey, Mikhaylov; Muyeen, S. M.; Yadykin, Vladimir; Mottaeva, Angela; Pryadko, Igor
The paper observes the dependence of the main macroeconomic indicators in developing countries from the change in world prices for crude oil. We analyzed a system of simultaneous equations, which makes it possible to verify some of these hypotheses, and developed the model to forecast the impact of oil prices on budget revenues. The practical significance of this work lies in the structuring of existing knowledge on the impact of oil crisis. The results of this work can be considered confirmation of the hypothesis of the sensitivity of U.S. macroeconomic indicators to the dynamics of oil prices. Outcomes assume stable growth even in the period of shock prices for oil, which is confirmed by the statistics that were used in the model. Deep decarbonization modeling is a trend in industrial facilities that are used by developing countries. The major challenge is the issue of availability that is applicable to the countries that want to utilize this facility in their communities. Industrial modeling toward decarbonization is now a developing mechanism to curb the growing issue of atmospheric pollution. This paper proves the relevance of promoting deep decarbonization applied by the developing countries.
Oil price factors : forecasting on the base of modified auto-regressive integrated moving average model
(International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy (IJEEP), 2018-11) Nyangarika, Anthony; Ulf Henning, Richter; Alexey, Mikhaylov
The paper proposes modification of auto-regressive integrated moving average model for finding the parameters of estimation and forecasts using exponential smoothing. The study use data Brent crude oil price and gas prices in the period from January 1991 to December 2016. The result of the study showed an improvement in the accuracy of the predicted values, while the emissions occurred near the end of the time series. It has minimal or no effect on other emissions of this data series. The study suggests that investors can predict prices analyzing the possible risks in oil futures markets.
A Framework for Enhancing Entrepreneurship Development in Higher Learning Institutions (HLIs) in Tanzania
(International Journal for Multidisciplinary Research (IJFMR), 2024-06) Mollel, Emmanuel; Chachage, Bukaza; Pasape, Liliane
The overall objective of this study was to understand the institutional forces for promoting entrepreneurial development in higher learning institutions (HLIs) in Tanzania and to provide an institutional framework for the same. The study used the Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA) as a case study to provide an account of the formal institutions, the informal institutions, and the organizational legitimacy that influence entrepreneurial development in the Tanzanian HLIs. Methodologically, the study used individual interviews and focus groups for primary data collection, and documentary review for secondary data to back up the primary data. The study used thematic analysis to derive themes from the data. Data were analyzed with the aid of Nvivo computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software. Through data saturation, a sample size of 73 respondents was reached. The study revealed that, properly organized formal institutions that are functional, active, and mutually reinforcing- including the HLIs’ charter as a formal external instrument; the research and development policy, innovation policy, entrepreneurship development investment policy, and the entrepreneurship development course as a formal internal instrument-enhance entrepreneurship development in HLIs. The study also revealed the need for informal institutions, such as social traditions and social norms as informal internal instruments, to supplement formal institutions. The study also revealed that, when formal and informal institutional forces are unquestionably functioning, active, and interplaying, and stakeholders are required to comply with them, the organizational legitimacy of entrepreneurship development in HLIs can be attained.
Formal Institutions In Enhancing Entrepreneurship Development In The Tanzanian Higher Learning Institutions.
(International Journal of Business and Economic Review, 2024) Mollel, Emmanuel; Chachage, Bukaza; Pasape, Liliane
This qualitative study aimed to explore how formal institutions promote entrepreneurship development in the Tanzanian Higher Learning Institutions (HLIs) using the Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA) as a case study. It employed semi-structured individual interviews, focus group discussions, and documentary review as data generation methods. Thematic analysis with the help of Nvivo software was used to analyze the data, revealing insights from 73 respondents, selected based on data saturation. The study applied the institutional theory as a theoretical lens to frame both its methodology and findings interpretation. Results suggest that organized-functional, active and interplaying formal institutions, including the HLIs’ charters, the policies (research and development policy, innovation policy, and entrepreneurship development investment policy), and the dedicated entrepreneurship development courses, play a crucial role in fostering entrepreneurship development in HLIs in Tanzania. The study recommends aligning institutional documents with entrepreneurship development and also ensuring coherence across these instruments.
Development and Performance Evaluation of a Novel Solar Dryer Integrated with Thermal Energy Storage System for Drying of Agricultural Products
(American Chemical Society, 2023-11-14) Kivevele, Thomas; Kichonge, Baraka; Marwa, Janeth; Rulazi, Evordius
Passive solar dryers play a crucial role in reducing postharvest losses in fruits and vegetables, especially in regions like sub-Saharan Africa with low electrification rates and limited financial resources. However, the intermittent nature of solar energy presents a significant challenge for these dryers. Passive solar dryers integrated with thermal energy storage (TES) can reduce intermittence and improve the drying efficiency. Currently, phase change materials (PCMs) are popular heat storage materials in dryers, and paraffin wax dominates. The main problem with the use of PCMs is that it is necessary to closely constrain the temperature range of the process during charging and discharging. This can be a difficult condition to meet in simple solar dryers due to the variable availability of solar radiation. Instead, solid-phase materials, such as sand and rocks, are often used. Soapstone is one of the natural rocks with good thermal properties, but it has yet to be used as a TES material in solar dryers for drying agricultural products. Therefore, the main objective of the present study was to develop a novel solar dryer integrated with soapstone as a TES material and evaluate its performance. The proximate analysis to examine the quality of dried products using the developed technology was also carried out. The comparative experiments for the developed dryer were conducted in two modes: dryer with TES materials and without TES materials, and the results were compared with open sun drying (OSD) by drying 50 kg of fresh pineapple and carrot at different times. The drying times for pineapples in the dryer with TES, without TES, and OSD were 13, 24, and 52 h, respectively. However, the drying times for carrots in the dryer with TES, without TES, and OSD were 12, 23, and 50 h, respectively. Notably, the dryer integrated with TES materials could supply heat for around 3–4 h after sunset. The thermal efficiency of the dryer, collector efficiency, and storage efficiency of TES materials were calculated and found to be 45, 43, and 74.5%, respectively. Proximate analysis indicated that the dryer integrated with TES materials effectively maintained the quality of the dried products compared to OSD. Solar dryer integrated with soapstone showed great promise as sustainable and efficient solutions for reducing postharvest losses and enhancing food security in resource-constrained regions like sub-Saharan Africa.
Nihilism and Postproverbials in Euphrase Kezilahabi’s Poetry Anthology 'Dhifa' ('Feast')
(NM-AIST, 2021-09-30) Olali, Tom; Kipacha, Ahmad
This paper discusses nihilism and postproverbials as exhibited, and how occasionally they occur pari passu, in a postmodern Swahili anthology of Dhifa, published in 2008 and authored by Euphrase Kezilahabi. Nihilism is “the radical repudiation of value, meaning and desirability” (Nietzsche Friedrich 7). It is a doctrine of skepticism that negates among others, idealism, mythology, arbitrary morality, and sacred values while maintaining that established institutions based on these beliefs must be destroyed. It is a populist notion and a philosophical orientation that interrogates the meaning of life and sees life as being hopeless and meaningless. On the other hand, postproverbials are “radicalized proverbial utterances which subvert the logic and the pattern of conventional proverbs, and aim to supplement an essentially traditionalist imagination with an iconographic and modernist consciousness” (Raji-Oyelade Aderemi 49). Both forms aim to repudiate or subvert the established mantra or ethos. Justification for our contention of the proposed point of convergence between these strands is demonstrated in the innovative manipulation of Swahili proverbial logics and symbolism by Kezilahabi in his many works, and in particular, Dhifa. We present evidence of how Kezilahabi turns the conventional form of Swahili proverbs which normally serves as a vital medium to prescribe and proscribe the code of conduct of the people around to postproverbials, which are in essence, structured in a more unconventional form. Kezilahabi uses the same path to advocate his new beliefs, and values them through postproverbials or anti- proverbs1.We are determined to show in this paper that the use of postproverbials is a key weapon that Kezilahabi harbours in his anti-platitudinous maneuvering to precisely drive his agenda. Our rationale is derived from parallelism we noted between Dhifa andThus Spoke Zarathustra (1883-1885) by Friedrich Nietzsche (2006)
An Investigation of the Extent of Implementation of the Financial Management Practices of Agri-SMEs in developing countries: Evidence from Tanzania
(Elsevier, 2023-08-31) Mang’ana, Kulwa; Hokororo, Silver; Ndyetabula, Daniel
The success of agricultural Small and Medium Enterprises (agri-SMEs), among other factors, heavily relies on their ability to manage finances effectively. This study examined the extent to which agricultural SMEs in Tanzania practice financial management activities. The study employed a cross-sectional survey design to collect data from 427 agri-SMEs in three regions of Tanzania. Descriptive statistics and higher-order reflective-formative Structural Equation Model (SEM) were employed for data analysis. The findings indicated moderate adoption of financial management practices. Specifically, agri-SMEs were found to frequently engage in working capital management practices, such as maintaining sufficient cash flows and records for payables and receivables. However, financial reporting is less frequently practiced, with sporadic financial statements preparation and financial analysis. The findings indicate further that other financial management practices such as financial accounting, capital budgeting and financing management were moderately and infrequently implemented, with external financing sources being utilized less frequently compared to internal financing sources. The path analysis indicates that all lower-order constructs significantly contributed to the higher-order financial man- agement practice construct with capital budgeting demonstrating the strongest impact. The findings highlight the need for improving financial reporting, analysis, and external financing usage in Tanzanian agri-SMEs. These findings offer valuable insights agri-SMEs in developing countries to appropriately strategize on implementation of financial management practices that will lead to improved access to finance and high performance.
Developing an Understanding of Traditional Maasai Water Practices and Technologies
(Brill, 2023-11) Rwiza, Mwemezi; Martin, Haikael; Kipacha, Ahmad
The African traditional knowledges and knowledge systems are on the brink of extinc- tion. The indigenous knowledge of Africa has not been extensively studied and docu- mented. In sub-Saharan Africa, the supremacy of colonial education in higher learning education has been responsible for erasing traditional knowledge. It is against this backdrop that a team of researchers from the Nyerere Knowledge for Change (K4C) Hub set out to investigate how traditional knowledges and modern, mainstream ways of knowing can be bridged. The study we report on was conducted in collaboration with the Maasai village leaders of Nduruma Village in Arusha, Northern Tanzania. Village committee meetings, interviews, group discussions, photograph taking, video recording, voice recording, and direct observation were among the methods used to gain knowledge on the Maasai traditional technologies of water management. The information gathered and shared in this case study contributes to building mutually beneficial expert-community partnerships.
Hydroxyapatite-activated seaweed biochar for enhanced remediation of fluoride contaminated soil at various pH ranges.
(Elsevier Ltd., 2022-12-10) Moirana, Ruth; Mkunda, Josephine; Machunda, Revocatus; Paradelo, Marcos; Mtei, Kelvin
This study investigated the defluoridation efficiency of hydroxyapatite-activated seaweed (Eucheuma Cottonii) biochar (HSB) at various soil pH ranges (3–11) while monitoring the impact of contact time (30 min - 2.5 h), adsorbent dosage (0.1–0.5 g) as well as the initial fluoride concentration and compare its performance to its respective seaweed biochar (SB). Activation of SB with the hydroxyapatite lead to a shift in its point-zero-charge (pHPZC) from 6 to 7.4 broadening its defluoridation pH range from a solitary 5 to amid 3 through 11. The fluoride adsorption mechanism was found to follow both Langmuir (R2 = 0.956) and Freundlich (R2 = 0.942) isotherm models with a maximum defluoridation capacity of 3.03 mg/g equivalent to the defluoridation efficiency of 79%. This is accounted to the existence of soil ions, SB active sites, and the attached hydroxyapatite, as fluoride adsorption sites each exhibiting a dissimilar fluoride removal mechanism. Therefore, the HSB could be a promising adsorbent for fluoride removal in the fluoride contaminated agricultural soils of inclusive pH ranges.
In The Quest for Semi-Industrialized and Middle-Income Economy: Strategies for Agricultural-Based Industrialization through Co-operatives in Tanzania
(AJOL, 2022) Anania, Paulo; Nade, Paschal
Promoting the industrial sector has been among the key development strategies in most developing countries including Tanzania. The government recognizes co-operatives as key development partners in the current move towards a middle income and semi-industrialized status. This calls for sorting out clearly how co-operatives can engage in the industrialization process. This paper aims to share experiences on practical and theoretical strategies regarding how best co-operatives can engage directly and indirectly in the industrialization process in Tanzania. The authors adapted a systematic literature review approach in this paper. Content analysis was used to analyse collected qualitative data from reviewed works. Secondary data were also collected from various studies including Government reports to cement discussions. With notable examples, the discussion has centred itself on various strategies that co-operatives can, directly and indirectly, engage in the industrialization process. The paper also describes the mechanisms that may be used to finance the industrialization process through co-operative and possible constraints to such investments. It can be concluded that there are direct and indirect options that co-operatives may apply to enter into the industrialization process and in financing the process

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